Science

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Jewish sources throughout the ages grapple with questions of science and the surrounding world, and how these questions intersect with Jewish texts, practices and values.

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The Commandment of Astronomical Wisdom

TALMUD

Understanding and calculating astronomical seasons and the movement of constellations is considered a commandment, connecting scientific knowledge with religious duty. The Talmud emphasizes the importance of this knowledge, equating its neglect to ignoring God's work.

Rabbi Shimon ben Pazi said that Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi said in the name of bar Kappara: Anyone who knows how to calculate astronomical seasons and the movement of constellations and does not do so, the verse says about him: “They do not take notice of the work of God, and they do not see His handiwork” (Isaiah 5:12). And Rabbi Shmuel bar Naḥmani said that Rabbi Yoḥanan said: From where is it derived that there is a mitzva incumbent upon a person to calculate astronomical seasons and the movement of constellations? As it was stated:…

Shabbat 75a:4

The Divine Labor of Creation

MIDRASH

The creation of the heavens and celestial bodies is depicted as a divine labor, emphasizing the breath and effort of God. Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer, an early medieval midrashic work, offers a unique perspective on the creation process, reflecting Jewish cosmological views.

THE COURSE OF THE MOON
RABBAN JOCHANAN BEN ẒAKKAI, Rabban Gamaliel, R. Ishmael, R. Elazar ben 'Arakh, R. Eliezer ben Hyrḳanos, and R. 'Aḳiba were expounding (the laws of) the Molad of the moon. They said: The Holy One, blessed be He, spake one word and the heavens were created as the residence of the Throne of His Glory, as it is said, "By the word of the Lord were the heavens made" (Ps. 33:6). But in connection with the (creation of the) host of heaven He laboured with great labour…

Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer 7:1

Solomon's Mastery of Science and Nature

COMMENTARY

King Solomon's unparalleled wisdom extended to both divination and natural sciences, enabling him to perform extraordinary feats. Ramban's commentary on Genesis delves into Solomon's profound understanding of agriculture and the world's foundational elements.

Scripture likewise relates concerning him, And Solomon’s wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the children of the east. That is to say, he was better versed than they in divination and enchanting, for this was their wisdom, as it is said, For they are replenished from the east, and with soothsayers like the Philistines. (The Sages similarly said: “What was the wisdom of the children of the east? They knew and were crafty in the divination of birds.”) And all the wisdom of Egypt means that Solomon was better versed in sorcery, which is the wisdom of Egypt…

Ramban on Genesis, Foreword 13

The Divine Commandment of Celestial Knowledge

KABBALAH

Understanding the motion of the spheres and divine force is considered a positive commandment, encouraging every Israelite to strive for this knowledge. In his philosophical work, Rabbi Hasdai Crescas emphasizes the religious duty of understanding celestial movements, reflecting medieval Jewish engagement with science and philosophy.

Here he explained that the knowledge of the motion of the spheres with divine force and direction constitutes this positive commandment. If this is so, then no Israelite should neglect to acquire this [knowledge] according to its fundamentals, each according to his capacity. The beginning of knowledge in these matters [consists] in general in these findings. Afterwards one may increase his observance of this commandment according to the greatness of his intelligence and knowledge.

Ohr Ne'erav, PART II 1:9

The Three Divisions of Wisdom

JEWISH THOUGHT

Understanding the different categories of wisdom can enhance both religious and secular knowledge. Bachya ibn Pekudah, in his 11th-century work 'Duties of the Heart,' categorizes wisdom into three divisions, each serving as a gateway to understanding religious and worldly matters.

Wisdom falls into three divisions: The first division is the science of nature, called in Arabic, "Al-Ilm al-tibi". This branch of knowledge deals with the essential and incidental properties of material bodies. The second division consists of the practical sciences, called in Arabic, "Al-Ilm al-riazi". These comprise arithmetic, engineering, astronomy, and music. The third division, called in Arabic, "Al-Ilm al-ilahi". is the science of theology, which deals with the knowledge of G-d, knowledge of His torah, and other [spiritual] things, such as the soul, the intellect, and spiritual beings…

Duties of the Heart, Introduction of the Author 3-7

Science as a Path to Understanding God

JEWISH THOUGHT

The study of various sciences can lead to a profound understanding of God and even prophetic insight. In his 12th-century philosophical work, the Guide for the Perplexed, Rambam reconciles Aristotelian philosophy with Jewish theology.

My son, so long as you are engaged in studying the Mathematical Sciences and Logic, you belong to those who go round about the palace in search of the gate. Thus our Sages figuratively use the phrase: “Ben-zoma is still outside.” When you understand Physics, you have entered the hall; and when, after completing the study of Natural Philosophy, you master Metaphysics, you have entered the innermost court, and are with the king in the same palace. You have attained the degree of the wise men, who include men of different grades of perfection…

Guide for the Perplexed, Part 3 51:9

Halakhah vs. Modern Science

HALAKHAH

Jewish law is determined by the beliefs of the sages rather than modern scientific assertions. Rabbi Chaim Jachter explores the tension between traditional Jewish law and modern scientific methods, particularly regarding the admissibility of blood tests in a Jewish court to determine paternal identity.

Since the early twentieth century, poskim have been faced with the question of whether blood tests may be accepted in beit din to help determine paternal identity. In many countries, blood tests were commonly used as evidence that a husband was not the father of his wife’s child. Most poskim ruled that such evidence is inadmissible in beit din. It seems that Rav Ben-Zion Uzziel (Sha’arei Uzziel 2:40:1:18) was the first to address this matter. He rules that blood tests are not admissible evidence based on the celebrated Gemara (Niddah 30a) that states that…

Gray Matter III, Beit Din, Blood Tests and DNA in Beit Din 1:3

The Creation of Time

SECOND TEMPLE

Philo of Alexandria argues that time itself was created with the world, challenging the notion of a pre-existing temporal framework. Philo, a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, harmonizes Jewish scripture with Greek philosophy, offering a unique perspective on the creation of time.

[2] “And God finished on the sixth day His works which He had made” (Gen. 2:2). It is quite foolish to think that the world was created in six days or in a space of time at all. Why? Because every period of time is a series of days and nights, and these can only be made such by the movement of the sun as it goes over and under the earth: but the sun is a part of heaven, so that time is confessedly more recent than the world. It would therefore be correct to say that the world was not made in time, but that time was formed by means of the world…

Allegorical Interpretation of Genesis, Book I 2:1

Modern Medicine and Jewish Law

HALAKHAH

The integration of contemporary medical knowledge, such as the Harvard criteria for brain death, into halakhic decision-making is crucial for understanding how modern science can be applied within the framework of Jewish law. Rabbi Moshe Tendler, a student and son-in-law of Rav Moshe Feinstein, translates and explains responsa on caring for the critically ill, addressing issues like brain death and quality of life.

In the foreword to his Iggeros Moshe, he makes reference to his role as a teacher, claiming that he never issues a final coercive ruling, but instead presents his opinion, and the basis for his opinion, so that readers can could judge for themselves. His responsa concerning care of the critically ill often refer to the source material. They do not even hint at the tremendous effort he made to understand the medical facts and to seek relevant references in the halachah. The medical facts available to him lacked the clarity which they have today…

Care of the Critically Ill, Responsa of Rav Moshe Feinstein, The Anatomy of a Teshuvah 7

The Science Behind the Jewish Calendar

GUIDES

The Jewish calendar uniquely integrates empirical observation with theoretical calculations, reflecting a blend of science and tradition. 20th-century scholar Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz explores the historical development of the Jewish calendar, from witness-based methods to the fixed calendar established by Hillel II in the 4th century CE.

The conclusion of the Sages is that time, and even more so Festivals, cannot be measured as an abstract concept, but must be connected and intertwined directly with observed reality. Therefore, they preferred to base the calendar on witnesses who saw the new moon, along with the science and mathematics of astronomical calculations. Notwithstanding the many practical difficulties caused by requiring witnesses and testimony, there is also one great benefit. It provides an empirical check of the theoretical knowledge and calculations…

Introductions to the Babylonian Talmud, Rosh Hashanah, Introduction to Rosh Hashanah 4

Halakhic Perspectives on Organ Transplants

HALAKHAH

The application of halakhic principles to modern medical issues, such as organ transplants, is a fascinating and complex endeavor. Rabbi J. David Bleich, a renowned bioethicist, explores how Jewish law can be applied to contemporary issues, including the halakhic implications of organ transplants.

Furthermore, maintains Rabbi Kamelhar, a transplanted organ is deemed to have become an integral part of the body of the recipient. For this reason, the recipient of an ovarian transplant must also be considered the mother of any child subsequently conceived. Despite a lack of relevant sources dealing with human transplants Rabbi Kamelhar endeavors to establish this point by drawing upon regulations governing the classification of plants and animals. The fruits of a seedling are forbidden as orlah during the first three years following its planting…

Contemporary Halakhic Problems, Vol I, Part I, CHAPTER V Medical Questions 40

Holiness and Ecology

COMMENTARY

Rabbi Sacks connects the priestly vision of holiness with the principles of ecology, suggesting that ethics involves honoring the sacred structure of the universe. In his commentary on Leviticus, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks explores how an ordered universe reflects a moral universe at peace with its Creator.

Perhaps the idea of ecology, one of the key discoveries of modern times, will allow us to understand better the priestly vision and its code of holiness, both of which see ethics not just as practical wisdom or prophetic justice but also as honouring the deep structure – the sacred ontology – of being. An ordered universe is a moral universe, a world at peace with its Creator and itself.

Covenant and Conversation; Leviticus; The Book of Holiness, Kedoshim, The Priestly Moral Imagination 26

The Intersection of Science and Faith

TANAKH

Understanding science and philosophy is essential to grasping the majesty and beauty of creation, which leads to a deeper love and fear of God. Rabbi Jonathan Sacks explores how integrating scientific and philosophical knowledge with religious study can enhance one's spiritual understanding.

There were, however, other views. Most famously, Rambam believed that a knowledge of science and philosophy – a window to the outside world – was essential to understanding God’s word. He made the radical suggestion, in the Mishneh Torah (Hilkhot Yesodei HaTorah 2:2), that it was precisely these forms of study that were the way to the love and fear of God. Through science – the knowledge of “He who spoke and called the universe into existence” – we gain a sense of the majesty and beauty, the almost infinite scope and intricate detail of creation and thus of the Creator…

I Believe; A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, Noah; The Light in the Ark 13

Modern Technology and Shabbat

RESPONSA

The use of modern technology, such as electricity and machines, on Shabbat and Yom Tov presents practical and halakhic challenges. Rabbi Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel, the first Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel, addresses these contemporary issues in his collection of responsa, Mishpetei Uziel.

A) Turning electricity on and off on Shabbat and holidays. B) Turning on an electric fan and opening [the door of] an elevator on Shabbat and holidays. C) If it is permissible for one who is hard of hearing to use an instrument that registers speaking voices on Shabbat and holidays.

Mishpetei Uziel, Volume III, Orach Chayim 36:2

The Divine Gift of Secular Knowledge

JEWISH THOUGHT

Secular knowledge is inherent in human nature and was implanted by the Creator to enable understanding and practical living. Naphtali Herz Wessely’s Enlightenment-era pamphlet argues for the inclusion of secular studies in Jewish education, based on classical Jewish teachings.

Thus, secular knowledge was fundamental to the kings, prophets and religious leaders of the Jewish people. When God’s spirit rested upon them, especially on Moses who receive the laws in his visions, they received divine matters, but secular knowledge did not reach them this way. For secular matters were already prepared by the Creator when He created man’s soul, in which he implanted knowledge and discernment for its own self-interest, enabling man to understand many of the details of perceptible reality and to derive good practices whereby a community can be established in every location.

Words of Peace and Truth 1:2:2

Science in Service of God

CHASIDUT

Scientific knowledge can enhance one's ability to fulfill religious duties and live with greater means for the service of God. Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, in his foundational Chabad text, the Tanya, discusses the practical application of sciences to better serve God.

Unless he employs [these sciences] as a useful instrument, viz., as a means of a more affluent livelihood to be able to serve G–d or knows how to apply them in the service of G–d and His Torah. This is the reason why Maimonides and Nachmanides, of blessed memory, and their adherents engaged in them.

Tanya, Part I; Likkutei Amarim 8:11

The Divine Role of Doctors

MUSAR

The Torah grants permission to doctors to heal, and illnesses are seen as emissaries of heaven, which can only be cured at the appointed time by the prescribed medicine. Rabbi Eliezer Papo’s early 19th-century ethical work, Pele Yoetz, emphasizes the importance of seeking medical help and acknowledges the role of doctors as sanctioned by Jewish law.

Healing - Our sages of blessed memory said on the verse "And heal he will be healed" [shemot 21;19] - from here the Torah gave the permission to doctors to heal. [berakhot 60a] And it is also said [with respect to illnesses] - that they are bad and trustworthy [Deut / devarim 28;59] - that they are "trustworthy" as an emissary / delegate [of heaven] [rashi there] for at the time that they are appointed / delegated [to fall upon a person] - it is decreed upon them that they should only leave on a determined day by the appointed doctor using the prescribed medicine…

Pele Yoetz 335:1

Stamp of Israel - Weizmann Institute of Science, Issued November 3 1969, Israeli postage stamp catalog, Catalog Number: 475. Designer: Eliezer Weishoff.

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